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SOUTHERN AFRICAN REGIONS OF RURAL BUILDING TECHNOLOGYFranco Frescura
The division of the southern African subcontinent into regions of building technology derived during the course of the previous chapter should only be seen as relevant in a largely historical context. Since the turn of the present century the country has undergone considerable social and economic changes which have led to the breakdown and even disappearance of these former regions. Certainly the major area of KhoiSan preserve in the Cape has been reduced to small, isolated pockets of Khoikhoi in Namaqualand and southern Namibia whilst the San have all but removed into the arid reaches of Botswana and Namibia; the eastern and predominantly Nguni coastal belt today supports a wide range of cone on cylinder technologies which, barring a few remaining settlement areas, have virtually replaced the beehive dwellings of old; indigenous architectural forms in the central highveld region have largely been displaced by flat-roofed lean-to structures originating from the Cape (Frescura, 1989); and the former circular verandah dwelling belt of the north has undergone extensive changes in its technology. A reassessment and revaluation of these regions as a whole therefore becomes necessary, not only to enable us to consider them in more current terms, but also because more recent research has shown them to be too general and simplistic to be relevant in a modern context. This generalization is regrettable but also unavoidable. With modern hindsight there is no doubt, for example, that a number of different beehive-building technologies must have existed historically. Yet a lack of archaeological data forces us to recognize them only in the broadest possible terms. It is possible that this lack of accuracy may be remedied, to a small degree, by a study of current building technologies which, when read in conjunction with modern climatological and environmental data, will allow for a more detailed reconstruction, supported by archaeological data, of the region's traditional and historical building systems. For the purpose of modern study it is proposed to divide the southern African subcontinent into seven regions of building technology. An eighth, which would have encompassed the larger area of the Cape, is being excluded, as widespread indigenous Khoikhoi settlement of this region virtually ceased during the 1860s. 1. SEMI-ARID TECHNOLOGYThis region includes the northern Cape, Bophuthatswana, eastern Botswana and those parts of the western Transvaal which border onto Botswana. It also encompasses parts of the northern Transvaal and Venda north of the Soutpansberg. Climate. Low, unreliable rainfalls concentrated in the summer season; great extremes of temperature recorded. Vegetation. Kalahari thornveld constituting a more open type of savanna. It consists of an admixture of tall, tufted and widely spaced grasses together with thorny acacia trees and bushes. Although the composition tends to vary greatly with increasing aridity to the west, dominant tree species are the Camelthorn (Acacia Giraffae Willd) and the Vaalkameel (Acacia haematoxylon Willd). Grass types include Themeda Triandra, Cymbopogon Plurinodis Stapf, and Eragrostis Superba Payr to the east giving way to various types of Aristida and Eragrostis spp. with increasing aridity. The nature of the shrub varies greatly but generally speaking is dominated by species of Tarchonanthus. Soils. Generally the soils all have an alkaline reaction, are thin and show no differentiation into horizons. Over much of the area they consist of light brown sandy loams which become denser with depth and are underlain by a hard layer cemented by either calcareous or siliceous material. Technology. This is a region which is typified by the construction of circular verandah dwellings as well as cone on cylinder forms. These however, do not comprise one uniform building technology but appear to fall into three sub-regions: the hotter north-east, the west and the arid south. In the case of the first, dwellings are possessed of wide, shade-giving eaves; the roof is carried by a central drum as well as, where relevant, by a set of perimeter verandah posts; drum walls usually consist of a series of timber posts set in close order, strengthened horizontally and coated over, internally and externally, with termite soil daka; courtyard walls are usually built from sun-dried clay bricks or reed screens; timber structures were traditionally timber-intensive (Van der Waal, 1977) but have undergone considerable rationalisation in more recent times; thatching is done in a predominantly traditional style involving the specialised treatment of both roof apex and eaves details. In the west roof eaves remain wide but the roof load is carried by the perimeter verandah posts only; the inner drum wall, built from sun-dried clay bricks or more simply moulded directly in clay, is not load-bearing; it is also not allowed to touch either perimeter posts or roof structure in order to prevent termitic infestation, thereby creating a ventilation gap; thatching is still predominantly traditional with good apex detailing in common use but an increase in the incidence of smooth or boer-style thatching has been noticed in more recent times. In the southern sub-region roof eaves become generally smaller; the inner drum wall is not load-bearing and, as in the west, the roof load is carried by the perimeter posts; the quality of roof-timbers available is generally poor and a centre post is often introduced to take up some of the load at the apex; thatching grasses are generally scarce and of poor quality, thatching is seldom traditional and often little attention is paid to the roof apex detail, leaving it open to the sky. The relationship between physical environment and dwelling form is underlined by a number of design features unique to the architecture of this region. As one moves from the hotter and relatively wetter north-east to the more arid south and south-west, the roof overhang forming a verandah contracts in size and thermal control is exercised by means of a ventilation gap created at the eaves. Similarly the thatching technology decreases in efficiency as on the one hand the quality and length of thatching grass is affected and, on the other, such water-sensitive details as the apex are treated in an increasingly nominal manner. The failure to complete the roof apex in fact tends to improve the thermal performance of the dwelling, increasing its ventilation and smoke dispersal abilities while retaining its water exclusion properties under all but the most extreme of conditions, rare in this region. The quantity of timber available is also a factor. Whereas the architecture of the north-east is traditionally timber-intensive, to the south timbers suitable for spanning large distances become scarcer and the timber framework is usually more economical and rationalized. 2. HIGHVELD TECHNOLOGYThis region includes most of the southern Transvaal and the Orange Free State. Although it is known to have supported a large and flourishing indigenous rural community before the years of the Difaqane, it was seriously depopulated during that time. Today most of this land is under the control of a white, predominantly rural, community and its indigenous inhabitants are, in the main, migrant farm workers with little rights to land occupation and tenure. Climate. Warm, rainy summers and cool, dry winters. Abundant sunshine, great diurnal changes of temperature and frequent winter frosts. Vegetation. The climatic conditions of marked drought, severe night frosts and considerable diurnal variations of temperature in winter are inimical to tree growth. Thus the natural climax vegetation can be described as true grassland. Two main types are recognized: the short grassveld or sweetveld in the east and the mixed grassveld towards the drier west. Major grass types include redgrass (Themeda Triandra) and Cymbopogon Plurinodis, predominant in country between 1.5m and 1.8m in height, and species of Eragrostis and Setaria. The natural vegetation of the region has been upset and largely supplanted by urbanization to the north and large scale farming to the south. Soils. Generally termed Highveld Prairie Soils, they are brown in colour and consist mainly of fine sandy loams overlying a B horizon of clay. The A horizon has been leached of the more soluble minerals but the soils nevertheless contain moderate amounts of potash, soda and phosphoric oxide. In the north-western Orange Free State, the soils are transitional in character between the Kalahari sand on limestone and the Highveld Prairie type. Technology. With the exception of the Lesotho lowlands and the Thaba 'Nchu enclave, few if any traditional building skills are still practised in this region today. Historically this area has always been poor of timbers suitable for building. Therefore the presence to the north of an urban industrialized economy, together with its technology and availability of commercial materials, has exerted a strong influence upon the aesthetics of the local indigenous architecture. The nature of the "found" material has also had to undergo a process of redefinition (Frescura, 1982) that, in its turn, has forced the local builder to make allowances in order to accommodate modern industrial materials within the framework of traditional construction. The dwellings built by farm workers generally reflect the insecurity of their land and job tenure and usually follow the "highveld house" pattern, involving the use of sun-dried clay or turf blocks, set with clay mortar into monolithic load-bearing walls, usually roofed over with corrugated iron sheeting. As the roofing material, as well as the doors and windows, are conventional money-intensive items, we find that in recent times the rural inhabitant has evolved a new value-system regarding his shelter. Whereas before a family forced to relocate themselves might simply have abandoned their traditionally-built dwelling to a process of natural decomposition, today the structure would be stripped of any materials of value which could prove useful at their new site. 3. BUSHVELD TECHNOLOGYCovers the major part of the central and northern Transvaal, between Pretoria in the south, the Soutpansberg to the north and the Lowveld to the east. Climate. This is essentially a highveld climate but it enjoys higher temperatures throughout the year and is free from severe frosts. Vegetation. Described as savanna of the Bushveld basin, it generally features deciduous trees of medium size with the grass layer being fairly high and having a continuous sward, including such grass species as Setaria, Themeda, Digitaria and Panicum. The poorer areas are dominated by the Wild Sering (Burkea Africana Hook), the Vaalboom (Terminalia Servicea Burch) and almost impenetrable shrub, while the slightly wetter but less fertile mountains of the Bushveld and the Waterberg carry an open savanna vegetation in which tall Boekenhout (Faurea Saligna Hart) trees are scattered in a tall, wiry, sour grassveld. Soils. The nature of the soil in this region varies greatly but can probably be grouped under four major types.
Technology. By comparison with the timber-impoverished semi-arid and highveld technologies, this region begins to reflect an increased availability of wood for construction, although not to such a degree as that found in the Lowveld. Walls are usually timber framed, using a variety of materials such as scrub, rubble or clay infill before being plastered over with daka. The roof-load is taken up, in the main, by the drum wall although in the case of verandah dwellings this is also shared by the outer perimeter of timber posts. It was noted that, in the case of the latter, very little advantage was being taken of a possible ventilation gap between wall and roof such as that found in regions further west. Instead thermal control was exercised by means of verandahs or wide eaves. Grass thatch-work was generally found to be proficient although in most cases the smooth boer technique had supplanted traditional methods. This may account for the widespread use of galvanized iron metal cappings in some parts of the region in order to resolve such water-sensitive areas as the apex of the conical roof, a detail normally well handled in traditional thatching technology. In more recent times much of the traditional indigenous architecture of the southern region is being supplanted by flat roofed highveld-type structures, probably as a reflection of its proximity to the Witwatersrand industrial region and the changing economic status of its inhabitants. 4. LOWVELD TECHNOLOGYThe region runs the length of the eastern Transvaal from the Limpopo in the north to the Pongola in the south. Climate. The Lowveld is characterized by very hot rainy summers and warm dry winters. Vegetation. Knoppiesdoring (Acacia Nigrescens Oliver) and Maroela (Sclerocarya Caffra Sond.) trees dot a grassveld dominated by redgrass (Themeda Triandra), which is sweet on the heavier soils derived from volcanic material but tends to be sour on sandy soils, especially those derived from granite. Towards the east, where the rainfall drops below 50mm, the finger grasses (Digitaria spp.) replace Themeda spp and the Acacias increase in number and are joined by a species of Combretum, arborescent Euphorbias and an occasional Mopani tree that, in favoured frost-free localities, may attain a stature of 5m to 8m. Towards the low-lying hot Limpopo valley, which receives less than 40mm of rain per annum, the Mopani veld is fully developed. It is characterized by short, dense growth of shrubby Copaifera Mopane J Kirk., seldom attaining more than 3m and more usually only 1.2m, associated with an occasional water-storing Baobab (Adansonia Digitata Linn.) and sparse tufted grasses. By contrast the moister country of the southern Soutpansberg, where the yearly rainfall exceeds 75mm, carries a varied assemblage of temperate and tropical trees of both hygrophyllous and sclerophyllous form, some with rounded, some with flat crowns, and shows a remarkable emulsion of forest and parkland according to aspect. Water courses are revealed by corridors of trees, mostly consisting of Fever trees (Acacia Xanthophloea Benth.), the Sausage tree (Kigelia Pinnata DC) and the Cape Mahogany (Trichilia Emetica Vahl) linked by a growth of lianas. Soils. Generally speaking this region may be divided into three major soil distribution areas.
Technology. The constructional methods employed by the builders of this region are by no means universal throughout it and may, in fact, be considered to fall into three distinct sub-regions. All three however are linked by virtue of the fact they are timber-intensive and employ a well-developed thatching technology reflecting the ready availability of timber and grasses suitable for building purposes. Generally speaking, walls in this region are traditionally built with an almost solid timber core, posts being set into the ground vertically and in close order. Daka packing and plastering is then applied both internally and externally. The drum wall takes up the full roof load except in the case of circular verandah dwellings where this is assisted by a series of perimeter posts. Up to a few generations ago roof structures in the northern and central sub-regions would be built up into an almost solid timber cone but this practice appears to have fallen into disuse in more recent times when a threatened shortage of suitable timbers forced the rationalization of the roof frame and the more efficient use of existing resources. The circular verandah dwelling form used to be predominant in the northern and central parts of this region and although many such examples may still be commonly found today, the cone on cylinder form now also enjoys widespread popularity. Similar developments have occurred in the southern areas where the beehive dwelling was once common but now appears to have given way entirely to the cone on cylinder. In the northern and central areas buildings tend to have low, wide overhangs that may or may not extend into verandahs. Although some attempts to create a ventilation gap at the eaves were noted, particularly in the central region, no efforts appeared to be made at separating the wall drum from the roof structure. We may thus conclude that unlike the semi-arid region, wood-attacking termites are not considered to be a local domestic problem. The thatching practices of both sub-regions were predominantly traditional and of consistently high quality, the detailing of the apex, eaves and low door-surrounds being dealt with in a proficient manner. The southern region on the other hand does not appear to build circular verandah dwellings although the cone on cylinder form is usually endowed with wide eaves, if perhaps not as generously as its northern neighbours. Local thatchers appeared to use the smooth boer style, this perhaps being indicative of the sub-region's former beehive tradition, but detailing of such areas as the apex seems to have been derived from the north. Also the roof-frames were found to be less timber intensive than elsewhere in the region. A number of other distinctions have arisen between the three sub-regions in more recent times, mostly concerning changes in their local wall-building technology. Whilst the far north has, in many cases, managed to maintain its links with traditional construction, a shortage of timber in the rest of the wetter, more fertile and hence more populated northern sub-region has forced local builders to turn to sun- dried or kiln-baked bricks bonded with clay into monolithic load-bearing walls. The southern sub-region on the other hand has evolved a system of construction based upon timber framing with horizontal timbers spanning from post to post. The cavity thus created could be filled with rubble, clay, stone or timber and the wall finally packed with clay and plastered with daka. Both novel northern and southern technologies have managed to spill over into the central sub-region, thus creating an area of indeterminate wall construction, it being possible to find examples of both within a short distance of each other. It ought to be mentioned that although it has not been possible to date to conduct research in the Ingwavuma area southernmost to this region, the thatching technology there has been reported to be based upon the extensive use of palm-leaves, a practice known to have occurred further north in Mocambique up to the early 1900s (Biermann, pers comm 1983). 5. EASTERN LITTORAL TECHNOLOGYIt encompasses a broad belt of terrain between the Indian Ocean to the east and the foothills of the Kahlamba in the west, and runs from Swaziland to the north through to the Great Kei River in the south. Climate. Falls into two broad sub-regions: the plateau slopes of Natal and the Eastern Cape which receive some rainfall at all seasons but are liable to very low temperatures and frost in winter; and the sub-tropical coastlands of Natal and the Transkei where summer rainfalls predominate. Vegetation. The region may be divided into three areas of vegetation that, however, do not form convenient belts but are fragmented and interspersed. Sour grassveld covers the flat-topped plateau spurs, thornveld occupies the flat-floored and enclosed river basins and forest is restricted to the sloping ground, particularly the escarpments and valley sides. The level surfaces are characterized by poor drainage and soils with a ferruginous hard pan. Such conditions are unfavourable for forest trees but tolerable for savanna trees and grasses. In the foothills and lower reaches of the Kahlamba, where the annual rainfall exceeds 90mm, the dominant grasses are Tristachya Hispida K. Schum and Themeda Triandra which grow to over 0.9m in height, affording only sour grazing. Outliers of this sourveld type occur at the 1200m to 1675m contours on the Cedarville Flats and on the sandy country around Mount Fletcher, Matatiele and Kokstad. The Tropical Bush and Savanna of the coastal belt carries a parkland type of vegetation in which the upper stratum consists of typically umbrella-shaped trees of low stature and the undergrowth is dominated by tall grasses that die down and become dormant in winter. Both evergreen and deciduous trees occur; most have a single trunk bare of branches for some height above the ground and are characterized by such devices for combating the strong insolation and drought as mobile pinnate leaves, the reduction of leaves to thorns, deep rooting habits and water-storing organs. Above the 1375m contour, the frequency of frost brings about the change from savanna to grassveld. Tropical forest areas are found along the eastern seaboard only in scattered patches where the winter drought is either alleviated by close proximity to the sea or at high altitudes where mist is frequent. The yearly rainfall of these areas is between 90-150mm. Soils. Like the vegetation, the soils of this region do not fall into convenient belts and vary greatly in their nature from the unleached subtropical soils of the north to the gley-like podsolic soils of the south and the lateritic soils of the Natal midlands. The eastern littoral light brown sandy soils of the Ingwavuma area of northern KwaZulu vary greatly in their nature. In places the troughs between the coastal dunes are occupied by fine sands; elsewhere they form marshy tracts where the surface sands are underlain by impervious clays at shallow depths. Inland the plain is covered with deep sand and the soils are excessively porous and, in spite of a dense bush cover, deficient in organic matter; the watercourses are in places paralleled by brackish black clays which are dry in winter but become sticky after summer rains, and elsewhere by coarse sandy alluvium. Unleached sub-tropical soils are found in the Swaziland and northern KwaZulu area where the climatic conditions resemble those of the Lowveld and similar soils have developed, mainly chocolate stony loams. Gley-like podsolic soils of the eastern coastal and semi-coastal belts are more sandy and poorer in plant nutrients than those of the Highveld while iron concretions are more abundant in the B horizon, particularly in the coastal lowland. This is probably the result of higher temperatures and heavier rainfalls that promote greater leaching and accelerate the formation of iron concretions. Under cultivation these soils are susceptible to erosion unless special precautionary measures are adopted. Over the eastern slopes of the Kahlamba heavy precipitation, high temperatures and efficient surface and internal drainage resulting from the generally undulating to hilly relief, favour laterization processes. Laterites show no differentiation into horizons and consist throughout very largely of clay containing oxides of aluminium and iron, the latter giving it a characteristic yellow to red colour. The bases of lime, magnesium, soda and potash are lacking and there is practically no humus. Lateritic earths are found in this region of technology, beginning with the true laterites of the dolomitic country of the Kahlamba mist belt, changing in character to Lateritic Red Earths as we move eastward to the lower slopes of the Escarpment and to Lateritic Yellow Earths occurring in the Natal midlands. Despite their high clay content the lateritic soils possess an excellent crumb structure with good water absorbing and water retaining properties. This is largely due to the free alumina and the iron oxides which cement the material into aggregates which are not easily puddled. Under cultivated conditions the sub-soil is easily compacted and erosion naturally follows. Technology. Although documentary evidence seems to point to the fact that beehive-type structures were being built for various reasons throughout most of southern Africa before the Difaqane, with a few notable exceptions these appear to have fallen into general disuse in the country's hinterland by the end of the last century. This however was not to be the case with the eastern littoral which, over the years, has become noted for its historical attachment to the beehive dwelling form and its grass-orientated building technology. Although much of the region has long since given way to the cone on cylinder as well as other dwelling forms, beehive and beehive-derived domestic structures are still being built as part of the daily practice of local architecture. Also, because much of this area coincides with the general boundaries of settlement of Nguni-speaking peoples, this is a dwelling form which has become strongly identified in the public mind, both black and white, with Nguni or, more specifically, Zulu cultural identity. However, speaking with the hindsight provided by current field research, it is probable that this region could in the past have supported equally a cone on cylinder as well as a beehive constructing technology, as is the case today. It is also important to consider both dwelling forms because the former, being universal to southern Africa, can provide a useful base line against which to evaluate the data of other cone on cylinder- building areas.
In very general terms it is possible to consider this region in three parts. The first is the Transkei area where the wall infill is largely clay, although examples of both rubble and a form of interwoven sapling "basket" have been recorded. In the northern districts of this sub-region clay or sod brick construction have both been recorded. This area is notable for the probable missionary influence upon the construction of the timber roof structure which does not bring all its roof beams into one central apex point, but rationalizes them into secondary and tertiary beams, also called "Jack rafters". Thatching is in the smooth or "boer" style and the apex is usually crowned with clay or a commercially available galvanized iron capping piece. The central sub-region covers the area between the Transkei and Zululand and includes the urban and highly industrial Natal midland region. Wall construction is usually in either clay brick or the more conventional timber frame described above. Although grass thatching is still predominant, many examples of adapted metal coverings have also been recorded, largely in the proximity of urban areas. The northern sub-region includes Zululand, parts of southern Swaziland and the Ingwavuma districts. The last surviving enclaves of beehive huts may still be found here from Bergville in the south to Swaziland in the north. Not unnaturally therefore this is also the area where traditional beehive thatching technology has been adapted to suit the needs of the conical roof and vestigial remnants of the old methods may still be found in the way of good detailing of the apex or the holding down of the thatch by means of grass ropes. Wall construction is timber framed using a large variety of infills that vary from area to area. In the northern reaches however a form of interwoven sapling basketwork, similar to that found in northern Transkei but more efficient, tends to predominate. Generally speaking it would appear that the soils of the Transkei seem to lend themselves more readily to the construction of exposed walls which require less maintenance than do their counterparts further north in Zululand and Swaziland, which are somewhat wetter. On the other hand we should also consider that the Transkei has been building in wattle and daub since the 1850s and, if we are to believe the accounts of some early visitors to the area, probably earlier. By the 1920s this technology had become dominant, and Duggan-Cronin (1954), who visited the Transkeian region in the mid-1920s and 1930s, photographed a pair of what were obviously initiation huts or lodges, which even then were being described by local people as examples of "old-fashioned" architecture. It is evident, therefore, that this sub-region has had four or five generations to perfect its skills in the medium of clay construction. On the other hand equivalent developments in many parts of KwaZulu appear to have only begun within the last two generations. 6. SOURVELD TECHNOLOGYThis is a relatively small strip of land falling between the Great Fish and the Great Kei rivers east of the Katberg. Climate. Like the previous technological region, this too falls into two broad areas: the plateau slopes of the Eastern Cape which receive some rainfall at all seasons but are liable to very low temperatures and frost in winter; and the subtropical coastland where summer rainfalls predominate. Vegetation. The coastal belt of this region is considered to be predominantly tropical bush and savanna with sour grassveld covering flat-topped plateau spurs and thornveld occupying the flat-floored and enclosed river basins. Forest is restricted to the sloping ground, particularly escarpments and valley sides. The major part of this region however is given over to a form of succulent bush made up very largely of Euphorbia spp., Aloe spp. and Portulacaria spp. which can attain a height of up to 1,8-2,4m. It is possible that these represent either the outliers of the Karoo vegetation or are members of the tropical flora which have become adapted to the area's arid conditions. Soils. The major part of the country is dominated by gley-like podsolic soils where soil-forming processes are governed by a combination of warm days and cold nights in winter and consistently high temperatures and thunderstorm rains in summer. The surface is generally uniform and covered with a grassland vegetation but in the coastal strip it becomes hilly and is clothed with deciduous and evergreen forest. A characteristic soil profile comprises an A horizon of sandy loam poor in humus and leached of the more soluble mineral constituents overlying a B horizon of impervious mottled clay in the upper portion of which are ferruginous concretions. As we move from west to east, however, the character of the soil tends to change under the influence of increasing rainfall and higher temperatures in the coastal belt. Technology. The builder of this region employs wall-building technologies which differ little from those of the eastern littoral to the north. They tend to fall into two major sub-regions: the coastal belt where walls are timber-framed, consisting of large posts linked horizontally with saplings, the cavity thus formed being filled with brushwood, packed with clay and plastered over with daka; and the hinterland where “green” or sun- dried bricks predominate. What distinguishes the architecture of this region is the frequent use made of such materials as corrugated and flat iron sheeting in its roofing technology. This in itself is not remarkable for similar developments have occurred on the highveld. Unlike that area however relatively few dwellings are built here in the highveld pattern, most following the cone on cylinder dwelling form or one of its derivations. The reasons for the introduction of such materials are largely self-evident. Although some areas of this region seem to be endowed with sufficient grasses to permit the thatching of roofs as a general practice, these tend to become scarce as one moves further inland and encounters the increasing encroachment of Karoo-type vegetation. This is in the main a succulent bush quite unsuitable for the purpose of thatching, although employed in some areas, such as Committee's Drift, as an underlay to a sparse grass cover. The grass impoverishment of these areas is aggravated by the density of settlement encountered in mid-region where the local inhabitants appear to have gone to extraordinary lengths to retain the form of their circular-plan dwellings and furnish them with conical roofs. Another important factor is the climate of the region that, with the exception of the Kahlamba mountain technology area, is potentially the coolest amongst the southern African sub-regions being discussed here. Thus, although the thatching methods used in the Ciskei appear to be coping adequately with the problem of weather exclusion, in many instances in areas of winter rainfall a kind of moss was recorded as growing on the grass cover. This was particularly noticeable on south-facing roof pitches where the low-strength winter sun was unlikely to reach the thatch and dry it regularly. It has not been possible to date to determine if and how such growths affect the performance of thatch roofs in this region. Finally we should also consider the proximity of the region to the urban and industrialised areas of East London, Port Elizabeth and Uitenhage that, like the Witwatersrand to the north, are exerting a powerful social and economic influence upon the rural areas about them. As in other instances where local population densities have created a shortage of natural building resources, the rural inhabitant tends to turn to new sources of found materials. This has been especially true in this particular case where a large proportion of the male population has entered the local industrial cash-based economy as migrant labourers. This has facilitated the acquisition by rural dwellers of money-intensive materials that have been percolating back into the rural building cycle for a number of years. It is interesting to note that whilst other areas, such as the highveld, have adapted their dwelling forms and hence their lifestyles to conform to an architecture dictated by their new roofing medium, this kind of compromise is seldom found in this region. Here local builders have stuck tenaciously to the older and more familiar circular plan despite the difficulties this may have created in the marriage of tradition to modern industrial materials. This has meant that materials essentially intended to roof over flat surfaces based upon a right angle technology have had to be adapted, cut, pounded and bent to conform to the format of the cone on cylinder dwelling. Needless to say this has given rise to several interesting resolutions of this problem, particularly in the handling of the apex. Eaves overhangs in this region are consistently narrow. The only compromise recorded is in the introduction of hexagonal or octagonal plan dwellings, but as these also occur under thatch, such changes should be seen as a means of accommodating furniture and artifacts rather than a giving way to a new roof technology. 7. MOUNTAIN TECHNOLOGYThis stretches from the districts of Whittlesea and Lady Frere in the south through to the Nqutu area of Zululand in the north. It also includes Lesotho, the Herschel-Lady Grey area and the Kahlamba reaches of northern Zululand and the north-eastern Orange Free State. Climate. Technically speaking this region falls within the bounds of a highveld climate having relatively cool summers and very cold winters with frequent frosts. However it will be found that the high mountainous conditions of some parts of Lesotho tend to aggravate the winter conditions and frequent snow precipitations occur in those parts. Vegetation. At high altitudes along the Great Escarpment low winter temperatures are responsible for the occurrence of Alpine Veld. This has a remarkably uniform composition although differences in local rainfalls may cause some variations. The black turfy soils of the Kahlamba basaltic plateau, at over 1825m of elevation, carry a short dense alpine grassveld varying from sweet to mixed and dominated by Themeda Triandra. A number of low-growing tussock grasses, particularly Festuca spp., are also present as well as Danthonia Disticha Nees, which is particularly common on shallow soils, and plants belonging to the fynbos - Passerina Montana Thoday, several species of Erica and Cliffortia - and Karroid false fynbos, most prominent among them being Chrysocoma and Helichrysum. Wherever the veld has been disturbed by overgrazing or has suffered erosion Danthonia Disticha and the fynbos and karroid elements increase. Soils. The basaltic lava of the Lesotho mountains has given rise to black clays, resembling those derived from the dolerite on the Highveld. Technology. Historically this is a region which is known, in the past, to have achieved a high degree of proficiency in its construction of the beehive dwelling. Unlike its Nguni counterpart that was built in the form of a hemispherical dome, the local beehive dwelling was developed into a more conical, pointed shape with the internal sapling framework rising to a central peaked apex. This is a distinction which was made originally by Walton (1956) but which has been confirmed by recent field research. According to Backhouse (1844) the Rolong also built similar structures that, like their Cape Nguni counterparts, were also plastered over with clay. The local doorway also differed from the coastal example in that it was extended forward into a snout-like tunnel and not built flush with the external surface of the structure. It would not be difficult in this particular case to give way to temptation and follow the work of others such as Casalis (1861), Burrow (1971) and Walton (1956) and use such differences in what are essentially similar dwelling forms to create architectural stereotypes for the two regions as a whole. However a general comparison of their respective climates tends to present a different picture. The mountain region is relatively cooler, often has little rain for months on end, is liable to heavy snowfalls and is often swept by bitterly cold winds during the winter months. The coastal region on the other hand at worst has to cope with intense summer heat and heavy thunderstorms. In these terms the extended doorway and central pointed apex can be seen to be specialized detail features of the dwelling aimed at keeping out cold draughts and shedding off any snow accumulations which may occur. To a great extent both of these have been retained in the local building vocabulary of today and although the cone on cylinder has largely replaced the beehive dome, the extended doorway has found translation in the later dwelling's technology. The extended doorway, on the other hand, has also been recorded in a few isolated instances among the Nguni of KwaZulu-Natal. In retrospect, however, in terms of local environment and technology, the significance of this is difficult to assess, and it could be argued that such examples are isolated and may be the result inter-marriage between Nguni and Sotho clans. One element of environmental adaptation that the local beehive is thought to have undergone was recorded by Walton during the course of his field research in the 1940s and early 1950s (Walton, 1956). It consisted of the addition of a low external stone wall built about the perimeter of the dwelling. The gap between the beehive structure and stone wall was filled with brush and the thatch cover carried over the wall. This had the effect of creating an air layer that served to insulate the interior space thus improving the dwelling's thermal performance under winter conditions. Currently the predominant wall building technology of this region appears to concentrate upon the use of load-bearing stone, which is either rubble, or dressed and laid in clay. Thatching is mostly in the smooth style and eaves overhangs are small. SOME GENERAL NOTES ON BUILDING TECHNOLOGYASPECT AND ORIENTATIONAn important consideration in the establishment of any rural settlement in southern Africa is the facing and positioning of the habitat. In circular homesteads, the orientation of the individual dwelling depended very much upon the status of its resident within the larger family or group hierarchy. It was generally considered that a good site should be located on a gentle eastern or north-eastern slope, but other factors such as the availability of natural resources, the proximity of other homesteads and a defensive overview of the immediate countryside could influence the final choice. In principle however the dwellings of the senior wives and the head of the family were usually given prime position in the higher part of the homestead. In more recent times however we have seen the development of a greater pragmatism in rural settlement as on the one hand homesteads have diminished in size and, on the other, rural overpopulation has limited the number of choice sites available. In general terms most rural settlements today tend to conform to a linear pattern that follows the lines of contour. Orientation falls into three major regions:
SUN-DRIED, GREEN OR KIMBERLEY BRICKSThe growth of population densities in many rural areas has resulted not only in increased competition for local natural building resources but has also brought many acres of previously fallow grassland under the plough of the subsistence farmer, thereby reducing the stock of traditional construction materials. This has forced the rural builder into seeking or even creating new resources in order to meet traditional housing needs. The introduction of corrugated iron sheeting into the rural areas is a manifestation of such a shortage. Another is the adoption of new wall building methods based upon the use of a locally manufactured sun-dried or, to use the correct western technical term, green bricks. These appear to have been introduced into the architecture of the sub-continent through three possible sources:
The occurrence of green brick construction cannot be assigned any definite location on a regional basis with the exception perhaps of the timber-impoverished highveld areas. Its distribution appears to be a factor of population densities and whilst it may be found to predominate in large settlements such as the Bushbuckridge-Acornhoek complex or Thaba 'Nchu, it may also occur as an isolated example in timber-endowed regions. One wall building technology that has received scant mention thus far has been sod brick construction. Whilst its origins are undoubtedly European, its occurrence is scattered and limited to isolated and apparently unrelated homesteads. It has been recorded mainly on white controlled farmlands on the north-eastern Orange Free State and south-eastern Transvaal although other examples have also been seen in the north-eastern Transkei region. THATCHING INFLUENCESThe predominant traditional thatching technology practiced throughout the country is based upon the simple principle of holding down the grass cover by means of a series of grass or bark fibre ropes laid to form an overlay. It is possible that this may or may not be an indication of a link to an earlier beehive technology that employed a similar thatching system. An adaptation of hemispherical dome thatching technology was observed both in Zululand and the southern Ciskei regions on the roofs of what are quite clearly beehive roof forms that have mutated into cone on cylinders. The use of and the patterns formed by the rope overlay resembled quite closely those found in other parts of the country which still practiced what was claimed by the inhabitants to be an older and more traditional cone on cylinder thatching technology. Whether this represents an indication of a historical link between the two dwelling forms is something that will need to be clarified at a future date by more intensive field investigations. However examples of such an older tradition are being rapidly supplanted by the smooth or so-called "boer" style which gives a neater finish and secures the grass cover to the timber frame more securely. Apart from its locally applied name, further indication that this technology was gained from Dutch farmers immigrant to the region lies in the almost universal adoption of the Dutch word "dekspan" or "roof-comb" for the leggett used to dress the grass wadds or bundles during the thatching process. WATER COLLECTION SYSTEMSIt is important to note that whilst the adoption by the rural builder of corrugated iron sheeting as a medium of roof construction is undoubtedly linked to a scarcity of natural resources in some areas, it has in most cases also become an important aid to the rural inhabitant in the collection and storage of rain water, particularly in those areas which are susceptible to periodic drought conditions. It is therefore important not to dismiss the element of free choice available to the indigenous population in the construction of their dwellings, not only in this particular case but also in other examples. Rural builders are not necessarily prisoners of their environment but, in many ways, are capable of shaping it to their own liking and convenience. CONCLUSIONSThe arbitrary creation of regions of technology such as those formulated during the course of this chapter can at best give a general picture of what has been recorded to have taken place up to recent times. It cannot take into account the vagaries of individual choice nor the existence of isolated pockets, where the availability of a particular natural resource makes the architecture of one particular group stand apart from that of their surrounding area. Similarly no natural region can be said to have sharply defined bounds and, as shown on the accompanying maps, a large degree of overlap can be seen to exist. It would also be wrong to accept these lines as being finite in a historical sense. The built environment changes constantly both on a macro and micro scale and there is no doubt that as the economic status of rural communities is transformed in the future, their dwellings can only follow suit. POSTSCRIPTThis paper was developed in the context of a course in indigenous architecture which, over the years, has been run at a number of universities. It has never been published, but has been handed out to students in note form, and I now plan to included it as a chapter in a book on the subject currently in preparation. BIBLIOGRAPHYBACKHOUSE, James. 1844. A Narrative of a Visit to the Mauritius and South Africa. London: Hamilton, Adams.
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